The Jewishness of Paul’s Letters — Grace Reigns Supreme
Introduction
The letters of Paul, often referred to as the Pauline Epistles, constitute a significant portion of the New Testament and have profoundly influenced Christian theology throughout history. However, to fully appreciate the depth and richness of these writings, one must understand their inherent Jewishness. Paul was a Pharisee, a Hebrew of Hebrews, and his writings are deeply rooted in Jewish thought, tradition, and scripture. This exploration will delve into the Jewish foundations of Paul’s letters, examining how his background informed his theology, particularly his revolutionary understanding of grace as expressed in Romans 11:6: “If by grace, then is it no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace.”
The Jewish Context of Paul’s Life and Ministry
Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was born a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin (Philippians 3:5). He was educated under Gamaliel, a respected Pharisaic teacher (Acts 22:3), and was fluent in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. His Jewish pedigree was impeccable, and before his conversion, he was a zealous Pharisee who persecuted the early followers of Jesus.
This Jewish background was not erased by his encounter with Christ on the road to Damascus; rather, it was transformed and became the foundation through which he would articulate the gospel to both Jews and Gentiles. Paul’s letters are replete with Jewish references, allusions to the Hebrew Scriptures, and engagement with Jewish interpretive methods. To read his letters without recognizing this Jewish context is to miss much of their intended meaning.
Grace in Jewish Thought and Paul’s Revolution
The concept of grace (Hebrew: hesed; Greek: charis) was not foreign to Jewish thought. In the Hebrew Scriptures, God’s grace or loving-kindness is evident in His covenantal faithfulness to Israel despite their unfaithfulness. However, by the first century, Jewish religious life had increasingly emphasized observance of the Law as the means of maintaining right standing with God.
Paul, having experienced the radical grace of God in Christ, presented a revolutionary understanding of grace that stood in tension with certain contemporary Jewish interpretations. In Romans 11:6, he makes a stark contrast: “If by grace, then is it no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace.” This statement encapsulates Paul’s conviction that salvation is entirely God’s gift, not something earned through human merit or works of the Law.
This was not a rejection of his Jewish heritage but a radical reclamation of the prophetic vision of God’s grace. Paul argued that Abraham himself was justified by faith before the Law was given (Romans 4), and that the Law served to reveal sin rather than provide a means of salvation (Romans 7:7-13).
The Synagogue Structure and Early Church Organization
The Jewish roots of early Christian ecclesiology are evident in the organizational structures that emerged. Peter’s instruction to the Jewish elders reflects this continuity: “Neither as being lords over God’s heritage, but being ensamples to the flock” (1 Peter 5:3). This leadership model was not created in a vacuum but was adapted from Jewish synagogue structures.
The writer to the Hebrews similarly instructs: “Obey them that have the rule over you” (Hebrews 13:17). This reflects the synagogue structure with its rulers, overseers, and elders. The Acts of the Apostles provides several examples of this structure in operation:
In Acts 13:15, we read: “The rulers of the synagogue sent unto them…” These rulers were responsible for the order and conduct of synagogue services, including the selection of readers and speakers.
Acts 18:8 mentions Crispus, “chief ruler of the synagogue,” who believed on the Lord. His conversion was significant given his position of authority in the Jewish community.
In Acts 18:17, we encounter Sosthenes, “another chief ruler,” who was beaten before the judgment seat. This Sosthenes may well be the same person Paul mentions in 1 Corinthians 1:1 as “Sosthenes our brother,” indicating that even synagogue leaders were coming to faith in Christ.
Paul’s Letter to the Corinthians: A Case Study in Jewish Context
When Paul writes to the Corinthians, he addresses “the church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which are in all Achaia” (1 Corinthians 1:2). He begins by mentioning his co-sender, “Sosthenes our brother” (1 Corinthians 1:1). If this is indeed the same Sosthenes who was a chief ruler of the synagogue in Corinth, it demonstrates the continuity between the synagogue and the early church.
Throughout 1 Corinthians, Paul draws on Jewish concepts and Scripture to address issues in a predominantly Gentile church. He uses the imagery of the Passover (1 Corinthians 5:7), appeals to the Law (1 Corinthians 9:8-9), and discusses the Torah’s regulations (1 Corinthians 14:21-22). His arguments about spiritual gifts (1 Corinthians 12-14) reflect Jewish apocalyptic thought and the concept of the Spirit’s work in the last days.
The Jewishness of Paul’s Theological Framework
Paul’s theological framework is thoroughly Jewish, even as it is transformed by his encounter with the risen Christ. His understanding of covenant, law, righteousness, and salvation are all rooted in Jewish thought, even as they are reconfigured around Christ.
Covenant Theology
Paul’s covenant theology builds on the Jewish understanding of God’s covenants with Abraham, Moses, and David. However, he presents Jesus as the fulfillment of these covenants and the mediator of a new covenant (1 Corinthians 11:25; 2 Corinthians 3:6). In Romans 9-11, Paul wrestles with the relationship between Israel and the church, affirming God’s faithfulness to His covenant people while extending the blessings of Abraham to the Gentiles through faith.
Law and Righteousness
Paul’s complex relationship with the Law reflects his Jewish background and his experience in Christ. He affirms the Law’s divine origin and goodness (Romans 7:12) but argues that it cannot provide righteousness (Romans 3:20). Instead, righteousness comes through faith in Christ (Romans 3:22). This was not a rejection of his Jewish heritage but a radical reclamation of the prophetic vision of God’s grace.
Atonement and Sacrifice
Paul’s understanding of Christ’s death draws heavily on Jewish sacrificial theology. He presents Jesus as the Passover lamb (1 Corinthians 5:7), the sin offering (Romans 8:3), and the Yom Kippur sacrifice (Romans 3:25). These images would have resonated with his Jewish audience and demonstrated that Christ’s death fulfilled the sacrificial system.
Paul’s Use of Jewish Scripture
Paul’s letters are saturated with quotations, allusions, and echoes from the Hebrew Scriptures. He uses Scripture not merely as proof texts but as the living word of God that continues to speak in the new covenant era. His interpretive methods reflect Jewish hermeneutical approaches, including midrash (interpretive exposition), pesher (contemporary application), and typology.
For example, in Romans 4, Paul engages in a midrashic interpretation of Genesis 15:6 to argue that Abraham was justified by faith apart from works. In Galatians 4:21-31, he uses an allegorical interpretation of the Hagar and Sarah story to contrast the old and new covenants. While these interpretations may seem strained to modern readers, they reflect first-century Jewish exegetical methods.
Paul’s Mission to the Gentiles and Jewish Identity
Paul’s calling as the “apostle to the Gentiles” (Romans 11:13) did not mean he abandoned his Jewish identity. Instead, he saw his mission as the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham that all nations would be blessed through him (Genesis 12:3). Paul believed that in Christ, the dividing wall between Jew and Gentile was broken down (Ephesians 2:14), creating one new humanity.
However, this did not mean the erasure of Jewish identity. Paul continued to observe Jewish practices when appropriate (Acts 18:18; 21:26) and affirmed the ongoing place of Israel in God’s redemptive plan (Romans 9-11). His vision was not of a homogenized Christianity but of a diverse community united in Christ, where Jewish believers could maintain their cultural and religious identity while Gentile believers were not required to become Jewish.
Grace and the Law in Paul’s Letters
The relationship between grace and the Law is a central theme in Paul’s letters. His famous statement in Romans 11:6—”If by grace, then is it no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace”—encapsulates his understanding that salvation is entirely God’s gift, not something earned through human merit or works of the Law.
This was not a rejection of the Law itself but of its misuse as a means of salvation. Paul argues that the Law was given to reveal sin (Romans 3:20) and to serve as a guardian until Christ came (Galatians 3:24). In Christ, believers are not under the Law but under grace (Romans 6:14), yet this freedom is not license to sin but empowerment to live righteously through the Spirit (Romans 8:1-4).
The Jewish Roots of Christian Ethics in Paul’s Letters
Paul’s ethical instructions are deeply rooted in Jewish moral teaching. He draws on the Ten Commandments (Romans 13:9-10), the wisdom tradition (Proverbs in Ephesians 5:15-17), and the holiness code (Leviticus in 1 Corinthians 6:18-20). However, these ethical demands are transformed by the Christ-event and the work of the Spirit.
For Paul, Christian ethics is not merely about external conformity to rules but about transformation into the image of Christ (2 Corinthians 3:18). The indwelling Spirit enables believers to fulfill the righteous requirements of the Law (Romans 8:4) and to bear the fruit of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22-23), which surpasses the ethical standards of contemporary Judaism and Hellenistic culture.
Paul’s Understanding of the People of God
Paul’s understanding of the people of God is shaped by his Jewish heritage and his experience of Christ. He sees the church as the continuation and fulfillment of Israel, composed of both Jewish and Gentile believers who are united in Christ. This is evident in his use of Israel terminology for the church: “the Israel of God” (Galatians 6:16), “Abraham’s offspring” (Galatians 3:29), and “the circumcision” (Philippians 3:3).
However, this does not mean Paul believes the church has replaced Israel. In Romans 9-11, he affirms God’s ongoing covenant faithfulness to ethnic Israel and looks forward to a future salvation of “all Israel” (Romans 11:26). The church is not a replacement for Israel but an expansion, incorporating Gentiles into the covenant people of God.
The Jewishness of Paul’s Eschatology
Paul’s eschatology (understanding of the last things) is thoroughly Jewish, shaped by the apocalyptic thought of Second Temple Judaism. He anticipates the imminent return of Christ (1 Thessalonians 4:13-18), the resurrection of the dead (1 Corinthians 15), and the final judgment (Romans 2:5-10). These themes reflect Jewish apocalyptic expectations but are centered on Jesus as the Messiah.
Paul also understands the present age as the “last days” (1 Corinthians 10:11), the time of fulfillment when God’s promises are being realized through the Spirit. This inaugurated eschatology, in which the future has broken into the present, is a distinctive feature of Paul’s thought, rooted in his Jewish apocalyptic worldview but transformed by his encounter with the risen Christ.
Paul’s Use of Jewish Liturgical Forms
Paul’s letters contain numerous echoes of Jewish liturgical forms, including prayers, hymns, and blessings. His doxologies (Romans 11:33-36; 16:25-27) reflect Jewish praise traditions, and his use of the Aramaic “Maranatha” (1 Corinthians 16:22) indicates the early church’s continuity with Jewish prayer language.
The Christ-hymn in Philippians 2:6-11 may have been an early Christian hymn that draws on Jewish wisdom traditions, and the household codes in Ephesians 5:21-6:9 and Colossians 3:18-4:1 adapt Jewish and Greco-Roman ethical instructions for the Christian community. These liturgical elements demonstrate how early Christian worship was rooted in Jewish forms while being transformed by faith in Christ.
The Jewish Context of Paul’s Controversies
Many of the controversies Paul addresses in his letters can only be understood against the backdrop of first-century Judaism. His debate with the “Judaizers” in Galatians over circumcision and the Law reflects tensions within the early church about the relationship between faith in Christ and observance of the Mosaic Law.
Similarly, his discussion of food offered to idols in 1 Corinthians 8-10 addresses issues that arose when Gentile believers, previously engaged in pagan worship, joined the predominantly Jewish Christian community. Paul’s instructions must be understood in the context of Jewish dietary laws and the struggle to maintain community unity across cultural divides.
Paul’s Jewish Rhetorical Strategies
Paul’s rhetorical strategies reflect his Jewish background and education. He uses diatribe (a rhetorical style involving a dialogue with an imaginary opponent) in Romans, a technique common in Hellenistic Jewish literature. His arguments often follow the pattern of Jewish interpretive methods, including the use of Scripture, analogy, and appeals to tradition.
In 1 Corinthians 1-4, Paul employs Jewish wisdom traditions to subvert Greco-Roman conceptions of wisdom and power, presenting the cross as the true revelation of God’s wisdom. This rhetorical strategy reflects his ability to engage with both Jewish and Gentile audiences while remaining rooted in his Jewish heritage.
The Jewish Background of Paul’s Concept of the Body of Christ
Paul’s concept of the church as the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:12-27; Romans 12:4-5) has both Jewish and Hellenistic antecedents. In Jewish thought, the people of Israel could be described as a body, and the Targums (Aramaic paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible) sometimes used “memra” (word) as a divine agent similar to Paul’s concept of Christ.
However, Paul transforms these concepts by centering them on Christ. The church is not just any body but the body of Christ, united by the Spirit and manifesting Christ’s presence in the world. This metaphor reflects Paul’s Jewish heritage while articulating a distinctly Christian understanding of community.
Paul’s Jewish Understanding of Suffering
